Branches
of philosophy
The different branches are:
1. Metaphysics
2. Epistemology
3. Axiology
4. Logic
Metaphysics:
Traces its origin from Aristotle who first
introduced ….. basically deals with the nature of being and reality… it
attempts to explain a person’s most fundamental concepts such as substance,
existence, essence, truth, space, time, causation, and the nature of God
As well as…
-
The origin and purpose of the universe
-
The nature and purpose of a person’s existence
-
The problem of the relation of body and mind,
-
The problem of freedom and other philosophical
and universal entities
Metaphysics sub divisions
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Cosmology
-
Teleology
-
Ontology
Cosmology – branch of
metaphysics which tries to explain the theories, origin, and development of the
cosmos (universe)
Teleology - branch of
metaphysics which tries to elucidate on subjects pertaining to whether or
not there is purpose in the universe
Ontology – This deals with
the meaning of existence and tries to resolve the question of whether existence
is identical with space, time, nature, spirit or God
Epistemology
The term epistemology
originates from the Greek word “episteme”, meaning knowledge/ science, “logos”
which means ‘the study of’
Fundamentally epistemology is
concerned with the study of Knowledge
This branch of philosophy
tries to answer fundamental human questions such as
What is knowledge?
Where does knowledge come
from?
How do we gain knowledge of
God?
How do we know whether God
does or does not exist?
Subdivisions- agnosticism
(the doctrine that conclusive knowledge of ultimate reality is an outright
impossibility…it is impossible for one to attain knowledge of something),
skepticism (the doctrine that any true knowledge is impossible or that all
knowledge is uncertain… a questioning attitude toward the possibility of having
any knowledge), a posteriori (the reasoning that experience comes first and
knowledge after words: experience to knowledge), a priori (the reasoning that
knowledge can be acquired through pure reason alone, independently and perhaps,
before experience: Knowledge- experience)
Axiology
The area of philosophy that
specifically deals with the problem of value. It seeks to rationalize questions
like …
What is value?
What are the important values
which are to be desired in living?
Are these values rooted in
reality?
How can these values be
realized in our daily experiences?
Subdivisions- Ethics (the
practical science that deals with the morality of human action or conduct),
aesthetics (the science fundamentally concerned with beauty and standards of
tests and values especially in art).
Logic
Is the branch of philosophy
that is concerned with the systematic treatment of the relation of ideas.
The term “logic” could have
been derived from the Greek word “logia” which means ‘argument’
“logike” meaning “art of
reasoning”
-
It is the study of the science and art of
correct thinking and correct reasoning
Philosophy
and Education
Etymologically, the word Philosophy has been
derived from two Greek words “Philo” (love) and “Sophia” (wisdom) means love of
wisdom. Wisdom is not the same thing as knowledge. Knowledge can be acquired,
but wisdom is realized truth. Philosophy is love for the truth and a life’s
necessity. Education in the widest sense of the term is life itself and, in a
narrow sense it is the preparation for complete living. Education is the
process of development of the child or the individual. It is a lifelong process.
Education tries to develop the innate potentialities of the individual in a harmonious
manner.
Interrelation between
Education and Philosophy
Philosophy is the mother of education and
education gives birth to Philosophy. This may seem contradictory but the
relationship between philosophy and education is very close. Philosophy
furnishes the goals of life and education gives the means to achieve those
goals. Man is the common subject of both philosophy and education. Philosophy and
education are interrelated, interdependent, identical and inseparable from each
other. Every philosopher has an educational outlook and every educator has a
philosophy of life. No system of education is completely divorced from
philosophy.
Philosophy gives education
its point, its target, its goal. Philosophy exercises tremendous influence on
education in all its aspects—aims, curriculum, methods, teachers, textbooks,
administration, discipline, evaluation etc.
SOCIOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION
Sociology has come from two words Societas and
Logos meaning “society” and “science” respectively. Hence scientific study of
society is commonly known as sociology. Society is more than a mere assemblage
of individuals. It involves interaction and interrelation between individuals
and groups. In fact, society exists only in the articulate consciousness of
human beings.
Education takes place in society constituted of
individuals. It is a social process. It has a social function as well as social
relevance. A school is created by the society and the society is shaped and
moulded by the school. Thus, education is both a cause and product of society.
It originates in the society and it must fulfill the needs and aspirations of
the society.
Educational
sociology is a branch of sociology, which is confronted with the problems of
relationship between society and education. It makes an effort to achieve the aims
of sociology through educational process, which is nothing but an interaction between
the individual and the society. The knowledge of social interaction is one of
the most important elements for social progress.
Impact of Educational
Sociology on Education
It is equivalent to the development of character
or personality by means of the social life of education institutions. The
social life includes all kinds of out-of-class activities. Man acquires
experience throughout his life. This acquisition of experience is education.
This process of acquiring experience is a social process and it is related to
and influenced by social factors. Education is thus a social process and its
function is not only to preserve the social heritage but also to enrich it.
Learning is the result of social interaction and social motivation.
·
Educational
sociology emphasizes the social aims of education.
·
From the
sociological point of view, education is regarded as a conservative force, a
creative force and a critical force.
·
Modern
curriculum emphasizes the social need of education.
·
Every
useful productive work has learning value. Thus work-based education helps in
the social development of the child. It prepares an individual to face the
social reality.
·
“School
is a purified, simplified and better balanced society.” The school is an
effective vehicle for socialization of the child.
·
The
school self-government is now an accepted educational principle and practice.
This is no doubt the result of sociological principle in education.
·
In
modern education the teacher is regarded as a friend, philosopher and guide. He
must prepare himself for this noble work. To fulfill this responsibility the
teacher must possess suitable personality.
·
Human
relations are also developed among students in the school society. These human
relations determine the course of education.
·
The
methods of teaching are also influenced by educational sociology. The teacher
has to adopt some method or technique to establish relationship between the objectives
and the materials of instruction.
·
it is
evident that every aspect of education such as aims, functions, materials of
instructions, methods of teaching is greatly influenced by social factors.
Modern education aims at total development. Here lies the need of sociological
foundation of education.
How
Socrates Made a Difference?
In the modern world, many
learners rely on Socrates’ philosophies. His style of questioning, recognition
of ignorance, and belief in the value of self-examination / knowledge still
resonate with many independent thinkers.
Socratic method
The Socratic method is a form
of inquiry and debate between individuals with opposing viewpoints based on
asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to
illuminate ideas. It is a dialectical method,
often involving an oppositional discussion in which the defense of one point of
view is pitted against the defense of another; one participant may lead another
to contradict himself in some way, thus strengthening the inquirer's own point.
Socratic Circle
A
Socratic Circle is a pedagogical approach based on the Socratic method and uses
a dialogic
approach to understand information in a text. Its systematic procedure is used
to examine a text through questions and answers founded on the beliefs that all
new knowledge is connected to prior knowledge, that all thinking comes from
asking questions, and that asking one question should lead to asking further
questions.
Questioning methods in
Socratic Circles
Socratic Circles are based
upon student involvement and participation through the interaction of peers.
The focus is to gain multiple perspectives on a given issue or topic. The
question pedagogy of
Socratic Questions is open-ended; focusing on broad, general ideas rather than
specific, factual information. The questioning technique used generally emphasize
a higher-level of questioning and thinking that have no single right answer
that encourages discussion among the Socratic circle.
Praxis
is used by educators to describe a recurring passage through a cyclical process
of experiential learning,
such as the cycle described and popularised by David A. Kolb.
Paulo Freire defines praxis in Pedagogy
of the Oppressed as "reflection and action upon the world in order
to transform it." Through praxis, oppressed people can acquire a critical
awareness of their own condition, and, with their allies, struggle for
liberation.
A
complex activity involving a cycle theory, application, evaluation, reflection,
and then back to theory. Social transformation is the product of praxis at the
collective level.
Conscientization is “the process in which men [and women], not
as recipients, but as knowing subjects, achieve a deepening awareness both of
the socio-cultural reality which shapes their lives and their capacity to
transform that reality”
·
The process of developing a critical awareness
of one’s social reality through reflection and action. Action is
fundamental because it is the process of changing the reality. Paulo
Freire says that we all acquire social myths which have a dominant tendency,
and so learning is a critical process which depends upon uncovering real
problems and actual needs.
·
“Critical Pedagogy advocates a shift in the
power structure in classrooms by acknowledging that students come to the class
with information gleaned from their life experiences, which may lead them to a
the state of Conscientization”
Banking education
Education is seen as a process of depositing
knowledge into passive students. Teachers are the epistemological authority in
this system; students' pre-existing knowledge is ignored, aside from what was
expected to be 'deposited' into them earlier. Freire also refers to a banking
paradigm as regarding students to be "adaptable, manageable beings. The
more completely they accept the passive role imposed on them, the more than
tend simply to adapt to the world as it is and to the fragmented view of
reality deposited in them."In the banking concept of education, knowledge
is a gift bestowed by those who consider themselves knowledgeable upon those
whom they consider to know nothing.
Liberatory education
Liberatory
education raises students' consciousnesses, preparing them to engage in larger
social struggles for liberation. It attempts to empower learners to critique
and challenge oppressive social conditions and to envision and work towards a
more just society
Problem posing education
Education as an act of cognition that take place
through dialogue. Students and teachers become critical co-investigators in
dialogue with each other According to Freire, with problem posing education,
"no one teaches another, nor is anyone self-taught. Men teach each other, mediated by the world,
by the cognizable objects which in banking education are 'owned' by the
teacher"
Negative Education
Rousseau's
ideas about education are mainly expounded in Emile. In that work, he
advances the idea of “negative education”, which is a form of “child-centered”
education. His essential idea is that education should be carried out, so far
as possible, in harmony with the development of the child's natural capacities
by a process of apparently autonomous discovery. This is in contrast to a model
of education where the teacher is a figure of authority who conveys knowledge
and skills according to a pre-determined curriculum. Rousseau depends here on
his thesis of natural goodness, which he asserts at the beginning of the book,
and his educational scheme involves the protection and development of the
child's natural goodness through various stages, along with the isolation of
the child from the domineering wills of others. Up to adolescence at least, the
educational program comprises a sequence of manipulations of the environment by
the tutor. The child is not told what to do or think but is led to draw its own
conclusions as a result of its own explorations, the context for which has been
carefully arranged.
Principles of
Montessori Method
The first principle is to train the pupil to be independent of others in
respect of the ordinary practices of life. The ultimate reference is to the
sense of touch, which is regarded as fundamental and primordial. The Montessori
maintains that the sense of touch is fundamental. It undergoes great
development during the early years of life. If neglected at this age, it loses
its susceptibility to training.
The Psychological method
Montessori’s psychological method in education
implies that the educative process is adapted to the stage of mental
development of child, and to his interest. In the Montessori method, ‘It is
necessary then to offer those exercises which correspond to the need of
development felt by an organism, and if the child’s age has carried him past certain
need, it is never possible to obtain, in its fullness, development which missed
its proper moment. If a child fails to perform a task or to appreciate the
truth of a principle, the teacher must not make him conscious of his error by
repeating the lesson. She must assume that the task has been presented
prematurely. Before again presenting the stimulus, she must await the
manifestation of the symptoms, which indicate that the need exists.
No Prizes
In the Montessori system
there are no prizes. The pupil’s sense of mastery is his highest reward: “His
own self-development is his true and almost his only pleasure.”
Perfect Freedom
According to Montessori, “The
method of observation (that is, the psychological method) is established one
fundamental base – the liberty necessitates independence of action on the part
of the child. “Whoever visits a well-kept school is struck by the discipline of
the children”.
Adapted Environment
Montessori advocates that the
environment should likewise be so adapted. She gave the child environments in
which everything is constituted in proportion to him/her and let him/her live
therein.
Practices of Montessori
method
The practices of the
Montessori method fall into three classes:
1. The exercises of practical
life;
2. The exercises in sensory
training; and
3. The didactic exercises.
The Exercises in Practical
Life
Freedom, according to Montessori,
does not consist in having other at one’s command to perform the ordinary
services, but in being able to do these for oneself, in being independent of
others. Thus in the House of Childhood the pupils learn how to wash their
hands, using little wash-stands with small pitchers and basins, how to clean their
nails, brush their teeth and so on. Exercises are also arranged to train the
child in the movements necessary in dressing and undressing.
Montessori devised certain
formal gymnastic exercises to develop co-ordinated movements in the child. She
disapproved of the child practicing the ordinary gymnastic exercises arranged
for the adult. She maintained “We are wrong” if we consider little children
from their physical point of view as little men.
Exercises in Sense Training
“To make the process one of
self-education”, Montessori explains in The Advanced Montessori Method,”
Method, “it is not enough that the stimulus should call forth activity, it must
also direct it. The child should not only persist for a long time in an exercise;
he must persist without making mistakes. All the physical or intrinsic
qualities of the objects should be determined, not only by the immediate
reaction of attention they provoke in the child, but also by their possession
of this fundamental characteristic, the control of error, that is to say, the
power of evoking the effective collaboration of the highest activities
(comparison, judgment).” In sensory training the senses are isolated whenever
that is possible. The pupils of the Montessori schools are blindfolded, a
feature of the training which seems to add zest to their efforts. The auditory
exercises are given in an environment not only of silence, but even of
darkness.
Material Used in Sensory
Training
• For perception of size :
A series of wooden cylinders varying in height only, in diameter only or in
both dimension at once, are employed, likewise blocks
varying regularly in size,
and rods of regularly, graded lengths.
• For perception of form :
In it are used geometrical insets in metal, in wood or the shapes of the insets
drawn on paper.
• For discrimination in
weight : It was tablets of wood similar in size but different in weight.
• For touch : All
highly polished surface and a sand-paper surface are used.
• For sense of temperature
: Here are used small metal bowls with caps.
• For auditory acuity :
Cylindrical sound boxes are used containing different substances.
• For the colour sense :
A graded series of coloured woods is used.
• Tactual Activity :
Similar methods are adopted in developing in the child’s tactual acuity, and in
training him to discriminate differences in temperature and in weight. In these
exercises the child is blindfolded or is enjoined to keep his eyes closed
during the tests; he is encouraged to do so by being told that he will thus be able
to feel the differences better.
Froebel's Kindergarten
Froebel,
however, attached great importance to education in the child's early life. He
thought that if the education of pre-school years was not properly reformed, no
tangible improvement could be made in school education. This led him to
establish a school for small children between the ages of three and seven. This
school was named "kindergarten" or the garden of children. The chief
characteristics of the kindergarten are:
(i) Self-Activity
Self-activity is spontaneous in which the child carries out his own
impulses and motives. Such activity directs the growth of the child along the
lines of racial development. So it merges the individual spirit with the spirit
of humanity. Self-activity, in fact, is self-realization through which the
child comes to know of his own nature as well as the life around him. Thus,
self-activity not only fills the gap between knowledge and action but also
gives joy, freedom, contentment and peace of mind. Self-activity is promoted
through song, movements and construction.
(ii) Creativeness
Child is creative by nature.
If he is given some material, he will at once try to create new forms and
combinations with that material. "Since God created man in his own image,
man should also create and bring forth like God," Froebel also believes
that every man's mind, soul and hand are inseparable, although they are
independent parts of him. Mind and soul express themselves through physical
activity and expression. It is, therefore, that thinking must express itself in
doing, otherwise education will remain unproductive.
(iii) Social Participation
Froebel believes that man is essentially a social animal by nature. It
is the primary instinct of man to live in the company of other persons. So
unlike Rousseau, he emphasized the social aspect of education and advocated
that home, school, church, vocation and the state, should all provide
opportunities to children for social participation. By participating in
co-operative activities, the child not only receives physical training but also
intellectual, social and moral education.
Methods of Teaching in the Kindergarten
The
entire school programme gives training in self-expression through song,
movement and construction. Out of these three, the child automatically learns
the proper use of language. But these three modes of expression are not
generally separated from one another, but they often go together, so that the
entire process may become one organic whole.
·
In
the Kindergarten, education is generally imparted through songs.
·
Gifts
and occupations of Froebel are the most conspicuous contribution to the
methodology of nursery education. Gifts are simple educational toys which are
presented to the child in a definite order, without charging their forms. The
child is given the freedom to handle them in any way, he likes.-while gifts
signify the material, occupations represent activities which are suggested by
that material and which can be continued with its help. Gifts are in the shape
of wooden balls of different colors, wooden spheres, cubes and cylinders of
different types and sizes. Additional gifts are in the form of wooden squares,
triangles, tables, sticks and rings. Occupations include activities like
construction with paper, clay, wood and materials. It may, however, be noted
that gifts and occupations have a definite purpose behind them. They train the
senses of sight and touch. They give the idea of size, form and surface.
·
"Play
is the characteristic activity of childhood. It is the highest phase of
child-development-of human development to this period, for it is self-active
representation or the inner-representation of the inner form, inner necessity
and impulse. Play is the purest, most spiritual activity of man at this stage
and at the same time, typical of human life as a whole-of the inner, natural
life in man and all things. It gives, therefore, joy, freedom, contentment,
inner and outer rest and peace with the world. It holds the source of all that
is good." It is through play that the child discloses his real self and
clearly indicates his interests. So Froebel gives a prominent place to Play
activities in his Kindergarten system.
·
Teacher
in the Kindergarten acts as a gardener, whose function is to see that young
plants (small children) under her care grow according to their own natural
course of development.
·
Discipline, according to Froebel, is not a set
of rules and regulations, imposed upon children. It is a way of living
·
Gandhiji
Education for Sarvodaya
Gandhiji was very much aware
of the needs of the country and considered Basic Education as the only type of
education, which may lead to success. His chief aim in planning for education
in India was to fulfill the needs of the country. India is a country of
villages. Most of the villagers in India cannot afford to pay for their
children’s education. In addition to it they require their children’s
assistance in their occupations. Therefore, Gandhiji planned for Basic
Education, which may not be a burden upon the parents and through which the
children may be able to earn to meet the expenses of education themselves, laid
stress upon the importance of dignity of labour and manual skill. He was
convinced that an education, which prepares the young men for white-collar jobs,
could hardly be suitable for an agriculture community. It is hence that he so
much emphasized the learning of craft in his plan of Basic Education.
Nai Talim – Nai means ‘New’ and Talim,
which is an Urdu word, means ‘Education’. Gandhiji’s concept of Nai Talim or
basic education is a grand idea and was in keeping with the time he was alive.
Gandhi's model of education was directed toward his alternative vision of the
social order: "Gandhi’s basic education was, therefore, an embodiment of
his perception of an ideal society consisting of small, self-reliant
communities with his ideal citizen being an industrious, self-respecting and
generous individual living in a small cooperative community. " Nai Talim
also envisaged a different role for the teacher, not simply as a professional
constrained by curricula and abstract standards, but rather as a person
relating directly to the student in the form of a dialogue: "A teacher who
establishes rapport with the taught, becomes one with them, learns more from
them than he teaches them. He who learns nothing from his disciples is, in my
opinion, worthless.
Non –violent Education
As has been already pointed
out, Gandhiji emphasized the principle of nonviolence in every field of life.
He considered non-violence as the characteristic human quality. He said,
“Non-violence is the law of our species as violence is the law of brutes”. Even
truth was subordinate to non-violence. This principle of non-violence, Gandhiji
used in every aspect of education, so much so that his theory of education may be
called non-violent education.
Idealism in Philosophy of Education
Idealism
in Philosophy of Education
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Aims of Education
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Emphasis is placed on
developing the mind, personal discipline, and character development. A person
should be literate and of good moral character
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Methods of Education
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Idealist education
involves depth of learning, a holistic approach that involves teaching the
whole rather than its parts. The best method of learning for Plato was the
dialectic, a process where ideas are put into battle against each other, with
the most significant idea winning the battle. Knowledge was not important
just for the material needs that it met. The idealist is not concerned with
turning out students with technical skills so much as having students with a
broad view and understanding of the world in which they live. Self
realization and self education are very important in idealism.
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Curriculum
|
The important factor in education at any level for idealists is
teaching children to think. Teachers should help students to explore texts
for ideas about the purposes of life, family and the nature of peer
pressures, and the problems of growing up. Idealists believe that ideas can
change lives and that classical literature can be used and explored to help
solve problems in today's world.Creativity will be encouraged when students
immerse themselves in the creative thinking of others and when they are
encouraged to reflect.
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Role of Teacher
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Since idealists believe in character development, they also believe
that the teacher should be a role model for students to emulate. Teaching is
considered a moral calling. The teacher's role is to be a skilful questioner
who encourages students to think and ask more questions in an environment
that is suitable for learning. While the lecture method is still important in
an idealist's education system, it is considered more of a way to convey
information and to help students comprehend ideas. Since teachers cannot
always be present when learning occurs, they must attempt to stimulate
students so that learning occurs even when they are not present. Project
based learning is on example of a self directed learning activity where
learning can occur without a teacher's presence.
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Critiques
|
Idealism has been influential in education for a considerable
amount of time. It is considered a conservative philosophy because of its
emphasis in preserving cultural traditions. The strengths of idealism include
encouraging thinking and cognition, promoting cultural learning, and
providing for character development of students. Teachers are considered
valuable parts of the educational process who should strive to provide a
comprehensive, systematic, and holistic approach to learning that stresses
self realization. Today, science has challenged idealism and brought about challenges
to idealistic principles. Science is based on hypothesis and tentativeness, but
idealism promotes a finished and absolute universe waiting to be discovered.
Idealism has often been linked with traditional religion.
The weakening of religion has led to the weakening of idealism as
a philosophy. Through Plato's ruler kings, and Augustine's emphasis on the
monastic life, it has been said that idealism leads to intellectual elitism.
In the past, education was considered important for the upper classes of
society, marking education as a luxury. Vocational and technical studies were
considered good enough for the general public. Idealistic education was
considered bookish and lacking relevance. It is argued that the character
development aspect of the philosophy involved conformity and subservience on
the part of the learner. This type of character development was considered to
stifle creativity and self direction, making students naïve and ready to
accept ideas without serious examination.
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Realism in Philosophy of Education
Realism
in Philosophy of Education
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Aims
of Education
|
Educational
aims are viewed from two perspectives: religious realism and secular realism.
The
religious realist believed that matter was not important unless it led to
something else.
For
example, not only looking at a rock's physical characteristics, but also
using that
information
to lead to more philosophical questions such as its beginnings and purpose.
Religious
realists believe that God created the universe out of nothing, giving it
order,
and people could get to know God by studying
the universe. Secular realists believed in
understanding the material world through
methods of rigorous inquiry. They promoted
he
study of science and scientific inquiry with the beliefs that people needed
to know
about
the world in order to promote their survival. Self preservation was the aim
of education.
Students
needed to be equipped with basics in a no-nonsense approach. The basics also
included
a moral education. They felt that learned information should be useful and
practical,
developing
rational abilities to their fullest for the achievement of a good life.
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Methods
of Education
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Secular
realists believe that schools should teach fundamental facts about the
universe in ways
that
make learning interesting and enjoyable. They place much emphasis on critical
reasoning
which
is assisted by observation and experimentation. Realists believe that self
realization is
valuable
and that it occurs best when students are able to obtain knowledge of the
external
world
by the didactic method and other methods of learning. Regardless of the
method,
however,
realists felt it should be organized and systemic. Locke believed that play
was
very
important in learning and stressed the importance of age appropriate
readiness to
receive certain conceptsof learning.
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Curriculum
|
Realists
agree that the educational curriculum should be practical and useful.
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Role
of Teacher
|
They
believe that the role of the teacher is that of a person who provides the
basics in a fun
and
interesting way. The basics should include practical studies like reading,
writing, drawing,
geography,
astronomy, and math, with additional physical activities. Many experiences
should
be
provided since children are blank slates coming to school ready to receive
information.
Most
realists believe that children should
have a positive learning climate and be provided
With
rewards as a motivation for learning. The realist's curriculum tends to be
one that
emphasizes
mental and physical development in a very organized and systematic approach.
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Critiques
|
According
to Ozmon and Carver (2008), realism appears primarily in times of trouble,
but was
brought into focus more by the advancement
of industry and technology. Although classical
and
religious realists promote the development of morals and character, many
other critics say
that
scientific realists are too materialistic
and „biased toward social control and social order.
In
some countries, a realist outlook has been used to support totalitarian
regimes, religious
systems,
and other worldviews that seem to seek over riding, controlling authority.
Realists
seem very concerned with testing and having
students measureup to certain standards.
The
result of this approach is the development of a very rigid curriculum that
focuses on
preparing
students for taking a test which is scientific and fact based. In one sense,
getting
through
the test itself is preparation for survival.
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Pragmatism
in Philosophy of Education
Pragmatism in
Philosophy of Education
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Aims
of Education
|
According
to Dewey, education was a preparation for life that allowed cultures to
survive
over
time and that allowed all individuals to have the fullest life possible in a
social
environment
using democratic ideals. He felt that educators should be as interested in
the
interests of children as they were in the
environments from which they were coming.
Education according to Dewey is a social
process that should be flexible and always have
an
objective in mind. The aim of education is the growth in the ability to learn
from
experience
and to make good decisions based on that experience because humankind is
ultimately
responsible for bringing order to the universe. Education should be a process
that
looks at the past for guidance, choosing the ideas that work and apply for
the situations
of
today, solving problems intelligently rather than automatically relying on
tradition.
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Methods
of Education
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Pragmatism
encourage a curriculum that is flexible and open-ended, involving cross
curricula
project based activities which involve the
application of all subject matter. It is an action
based
philosophy which would include using multiple methods of educating students,
some
of which involve going into the community or involving community members.
Teachers
need to be concerned with teaching children how to solve real life problems
in a
practical
setting. This philosophy advocates meeting the needs and interests of individual
children
through a directed approach. Experimentation is basic, leading to problems
which
children
must learn to solve.
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Curriculum
|
The
curriculum focuses on learning experiences in a syllabus that is diversified
and problem
centered,
not fragmented or compartmentalized. All learning starts with a problem or
question
that
allows students to search for answers according to interests and abilities
that may involve
working
alone, or in group. Use of a wide variety of resources from traditional to modern,
is
encouraged
with students identifying those resources which are best suited for the
project
at hand.
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Role
of Teacher
|
According
to Dewey, learning was essential for the continuation of society, which would
make
the
job of the teacher quite significant. Pragmatists believe that people learn
through informal
processes,
but these processes must have a purpose and a flexible plan of action. The
teacher's
job
is to provide an open-ended opportunity for study in an environment that
allows the child
to
think and act intelligentlyin order to test ideas and skills. All children do
not learn in the
same
way or at the same rate, so teachers are the guides to the learning process,
which meets
children
at their level of ability. In that respect, teachers must have sufficient
knowledge of a
subject
to be able to break it down into parts for students to study, and they must
be able to
link
the learning to a motivation and natural curiosity that the children already
possess. It is
also
important for teachers to also understand the background and environment that
learners
are
bringing to school so that they can make suggestions and arouse student
interests in order
to
help them grow by leading them into new areas of knowledge.
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Critiques
|
One
criticism of the pragmatist philosophy of education is that it dilutes the
curriculum by
incorporating pieces of each discipline or
subject area without exploring any of them in detail.
It
is also often said that this philosophy rejects traditional values for values
that are uncertain
or
impermanent. However, the pragmatist believes that traditional methods that
work should be
kept and those that do not should be replaced.
Sometimes the replacement process involves
experimenting with new ideas and processes.
The teacher who teaches in a pragmatist
curriculum
must be an extremely capable and organized person who is able to think
spontaneously
and possess a wide base of knowledge. In the past, many teachers were not
well
trained enough to be able to support this concept adequately. Because of the
idea that the
curriculum
should be centered on the interests of children, pragmatists are also often
charged
with
being too permissive with children..
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1- Follow Nature
2- Child Central Education
3- Opposition of Bookish knowledge
4- Emphasis on the training of senses
5- Emphasis on the Freedom of the child
6- Emphasis on the Abilities capacities and Interest of the child
7- Progressive
8- Negative Education
Naturalism and Aims of Education
1- Self expression
2- To prepare Man for the struggle
3- To enable him to adjust himself with his environment
4- Natural Development
5- Development of Culture
6- To perfect human machine
7- Attainment of present and Future happiness
8- Autonomous development of personality
9- Redirection of human instincts
10- Proper utilization of leisure time
Naturalism and Methods of Teaching
1. Learning by Doing
2. Learning by playing
3. Learning by direct experience
4. Activity Method
5. Freedom in the child
6. Negative Method
Naturalism and Teacher
1. Teacher as a Guide
2. Teacher as a Observes
3. Teacher as a protectors
4. Teacher as an Organizer
Limitations of Naturalism in education
1. Aims of Ideals of education are not exalting
2. Emphases on present
3. Less emphases on books
4. All the emphases is given to scientific subjects
5. Unlimited Freedom given to the child
6. Unappealing principle of discipline by Natural Consequences
7. Teacher only in the background
8. Ignorance of society.
Humanism
Humanism generally is associated with beliefs
about freedom and autonomy and notions that "human beings are capable of
making significant personal choices within the constraints imposed by heredity,
personal history, and environment". Humanist principles stress the
importance of the individual and specific human needs. Among the major
assumptions underlying humanism are the following: (a) human nature is
inherently good; (b) individuals are free and autonomous, thus they are capable
of making major personal choices; (c) human potential for growth and
development is virtually unlimited; (d) self-concept plays an important role in
growth and development; (e) individuals have an urge toward self-actualization;
(f) reality is defined by each person; and (g) individuals have responsibility
to both themselves and to others
Principles
of humanist thought have served as a foundation for major developments in both
psychology and education. In psychology, the humanist paradigm emerged as a
response to both the determinism inherent in Freudian psychoanalysis and the
limited place of affect and free will found in behaviorism. While many
individuals have made important contributions to humanistic psychology, two of
the most noteworthy contributors were Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Maslow
(1970) discussed the concept of "self-actualization," which he
described as "the full use and exploitation of talents, capacities,
potentialities, etc." He identified a number of characteristics of
self-actualizing people, three of which are tolerance for ambiguity, acceptance
of self and others, and "peak experiences" that lead to personal
transformation through new insights. Rogers (1961), through the approach he referred
to as "client-centered therapy," noted that the major goal of therapy
is to help clients foster greater self-direction. According to Rogers,
self-direction "means that one chooses - and then learns from the
consequences".
Humanistic education is based on similar ideas.
Patterson (1973) has stated that "the purpose of education is to develop
self-actualizing persons". According to Valett (1977), humanistic
education is a lifelong process, the purpose of which "is to develop
individuals who will be able to live joyous, humane, and meaningful
lives". Priorities of humanistic education should include "[t]he
development of emotive abilities, the shaping of affective desires, the fullest
expression of aesthetic qualities, and the enhancement of powers of
self-direction and control (emphasis added)". Essential characteristics of
the humanistic educator are empathic understanding, respect or acceptance, and
genuineness or authenticity.
The
term Humanistic Education is generally used to designate a variety of
educational theories and practices that are committed to the world-view and
ethical code of Humanism; that is, positing the enhancement of human
development, well-being, and dignity as the ultimate end of all human thought
and action, beyond religious, ideological, or national ideals and values. Based
on a long philosophical and moral tradition, from the ancient Biblical prophets
and Greek philosophers to the UN’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights and
the Rights of the Child, the commitment to Humanism further implies the
fostering of the following three fundamental tenets.
1.
The first is philosophical, consisting of a conception of man, men and women, as
an autonomous and rational being and a fundamental respect for all humans by
virtue of being endowed with freedom of will, rational thinking, moral
conscience, imaginative and creative powers.
2.
The second tenet is socio political, consisting of a universal ethics of human
equality, reciprocity, and solidarity and a political order of pluralistic,
just and humane democracy.
3.
The third tenet is pedagogical, consisting in the commitment to assist all
individuals to realize and perfect their potentialities and “to enjoy”, in the
words of Mortimer Adler, “as fully as possible all the goods that make a human
life as good as it can be”.
Intellectual
property education
Intellectual property (IP) consists
of any ideas, concepts, insignias, and symbols that are unique and original to
the owner. IP has various broad categories: copyright, trademarks, patents,
designs, and other types of information. The concept is best thought of as a
bundle of rights protected by law. Trade secrets, expertise, and know-how, are instances
of confidential company information that are also covered by IP laws. These
ideas and concepts are assets to an organization or country and can be
extremely valuable.
The Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS)
Agreement under the administration of the World Trade Organization compels
member countries of the WTO to establish and enforce appropriate IP-protection
systems nationally. Barring the emerging importance of IP at the international
level, other domestic reasons exist for the introduction of IP education at
higher education levels. The global economy is moving towards greater
dependence on intellectual property and is becoming knowledge driven. The focus
is shifting away from products and services linked to land and labor and
shifting toward those linked to intellectual capital.
Intellectual property education is the
teaching of explanations of and arguments concerning intellectual property laws, especially copyright
and related violations. Proponents argue that such education should
be implemented because of increasing copyright infringement by students (and
the general population). Detractors argue that such education is
tantamount to forced indoctrination of propaganda.
The dilemma of "who owns what" is
compounded when one considers matters such as how much support, use of facilities,
and equipment involvement are used to produce a work using newer electronic
technologies. Often the institution has invested a great deal of funds in a
project or product before it is used for educational purposes. There are four
major issues:
1. Ownership of intellectual property
2. Rights to use intellectual property
3. Procedural issues concerning intellectual
property
4. Special considerations concerning copyright
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